Introduction
The term "Supervision" has its origin in two Latin words: super meaning "Above" : video meaning "I see". In a hierarchical organization/institution no one can ever claim to work without proper supervision for smooth running/functioning of an organization. Supervision is very important in any institution for proper coordination, functioning and to link different parts and organs of the institution together in other to achieve a desiring out. Supervision: this refers to the act or process of overseeing the activities of a supervisee by the supervisor.
The term educational supervision: Educational supervision is a term used to identify the work duties of administrative workers in education. Educational supervisors make sure the educational institution operates efficiently and within the legal requirements and rules.
Contemporary writers have slightly different concepts about what supervision means. Most of them however, seem to agree that supervision is an organized, democratic process involving the supervisor and the persons or groups of persons supervised, for the achievement of desired objectives, Nwaogu (1980) viewed supervision as a process of stimulating growth and a means of helping teachers to help themselves. Ojelabi (1981) described supervision as a constant and continuous process of personal guidance based on frequent visits to a school to give concrete and constructive advice and encouragement to teachers, so as to improve the learning and teaching situation in schools. Hence, supervision is a modern idea that should assist students and teachers in improving instruction in the classroom.
Supervision is a term that covers a wide range of teacher education processes and activities. It begins before a teaching practice, intensifies through the practice and continues after the practice has been completed. It includes aspects of advising, guiding, counseling, modeling, coaching, evaluating and assessing. It is a form of systematic, purposeful behaviour having clear aims and destructive content and activities. They're models of supervision which refers to a set of principles and concepts that helps to understand information. These Models of supervision can be categorized into four which was given by Bernard and Goodyear (2004). They includes:-
• Developmental model of supervision
• Integrated models of supervision
• Social role model of supervision
• System model of supervision
. DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL: The underlying premise of developmental models of supervision is the notion that individuals are continuously growing. In combining our experience with hereditary predispositions we develop strengths and growth areas. The objective of supervision from this perspective is to maximize and identify growth needed for the future. Thus, it is typical to be continuously identifying new areas of growth in a lifelong learning process as a clinical practitioner. Studies revealed that behaviour of supervisors changed as supervisees gained experience, and the supervisory relationship also changed. There appeared to be a scientific basis for developmental trends and patterns in supervision. In general, the developmental model of supervision defines progressive stages of supervisee development from beginner to expert, with each stage consisting of discrete characteristics and skills.
Stoltenberg and Delworth (1987) described a developmental model with three levels of supervisees: beginning, intermediate, and advanced. Within each level the authors noted a trend. The beginner supervisee would tend to function in a rigid, shallow, imitative way and then over time move toward more competence, selfassurance, and self-reliance. An integrated model of supervision Supervision is a complex activity and there is a need for an integrated model. Integrated models of supervision are described as eclectic. This allows the clinician to integrate several models into a working paradigm. Some supervisors may choose to lecture, most typically, during group supervision. Others prefer the counselor approach, moving into areas of the supervisees psyche to uncover unconscious motives and desires. Other supervisors may find themselves in a co-therapist role with the supervisee. Regardless of the role, each integrated model serves a specific purpose. The purpose is to help identify obstacles that prevent the supervisee from learning, growing and ultimately helping the client sitting before them.
SOCIAL ROLE MODEL: The social role model specifies that the supervisor acts and performs certain roles, tasks and functions that take into accounts behaviours, beliefs and attitudes that the supervisee is expected to do.
SYSTEM MODEL: This model emphasizes a learning alliance between the supervisor and supervisee. This alliance is based on the relationship between the supervisor and supervisee.
OTHER MODELS OF SUPERVISION
According to Jerry G Gebhard (1984) at Teachers College, Columbia University, also discussed five models of supervision in his research on supervision. He said, “The first model is offered to illustrate the kind of supervision which has traditionally been used by teacher educators. But since this model has some serious limitations, the other four models are proposed in order to describe ways that we can define the role or function of the supervisor and supervision differently—that is, differently from how the supervisor and supervision are normally perceived”
They are:-
° Directive model
° Alternative model
° Collaborative model
° Non-directive model
° Creative model
Directive model: This model of supervision is the one which most teachers and many teacher educators express as their idea of what supervision is. In directive supervision the role of the supervisor is to direct and inform the teacher, model teaching behaviors, and evaluate the teacher’s mastery of defined behaviors. There are at least three problems with directive supervision. First, there is the problem of how the supervisor defines “good” teaching. Second, there is the problem of negative humanistic consequences that may arise from using a directive model of supervision. And third, there is the problem of who is ultimately responsible for what goes on in the classroom. The problem with directive supervision is that a prescriptive approach forces teachers to comply with what the supervisor thinks they should do. Blatchford (1976) and Jarvis (1976) have both suggested that this keeps the responsibility for decision making with the teacher educator. It does not allow the teachers to become their own experts and to rely upon themselves, rather than on the supervisor, for the answers.
Alternative model: Copeland (1982) discovered in his research on teacher attitudes to supervision that some teachers feel the need to be told what to do when they first begin to teach. He attributes this to their insecurity in facing students without having the skills to cope with that situation. Teachers from a number of countries have also pointed out that if the teacher is not given direction by the supervisor, then the supervisor is not considered qualified. The roots of directive supervision grow deep. However, there is a way to direct teachers without prescribing what they should do. This way is through a model that Freeman (1982) calls alternative supervision.In this model, the supervisor’s role is to suggest a variety of alternatives to what the teacher has done in the classroom. This limits the number of choices for teachers, and it can reduce anxiety over not knowing what to do next. However, it still keeps the responsibility for decision making with the teacher. There is simply less choice. Freeman points out that alternative supervision works best when the supervisor does not favor any one alternative and does not sound judgmental. The purpose of offering alternatives is to widen the scope of what a teacher will consider doing. Fanselow (in press) states that his goal is to substitute self-generated alternatives for prescribed alternatives. Like Freeman, Fanselow might begin by suggesting alternatives. However, Fanselow also provides ways through which teachers can generate their own alternatives in their teaching. One way is to try the opposite of what is usually done. For example, if students usually read silently, the teacher can generate a lesson where they read aloud. Another way is by duplicating inside the classroom what goes on outside of it. He also trains teachers to be aware of “leaden” (as opposed to “golden”) moments when things consistently do not go well (for example, when students always come to class late) and to try alternative behaviors to resolve the problem (for example, offer coffee to those who come on time or simply sit down and talk with the students about the importance of starting on time). No matter how the alternatives are generated, the aim, as Fanselow makes clear, is for teachers to try alternative behaviors and to pay attention to the consequences. If the supervisor provides strategies (such as those described above) which give teachers a way to understand the consequences of what they do, teachers can gradually become their own experts and can rely on themselves to make teaching decisions.
Collaborative model: Within a collaborative model the supervisor’s role is to work with teachers but not to direct them. The supervisor actively participates with the teacher in any decisions that are made and attempts to establish a sharing relationship. Cogan (1973) advocates such a model, which he calls “clinical supervision,” Cogan believes that teaching is mostly a problem-solving process that requires a sharing of ideas between the teacher and the supervisor. The teacher and supervisor work together in addressing a problem in the teacher’s classroom teaching. They pose hypothesis, experiment, and implement strategies which appear to be a reasonable solution to the problem under consideration.
In the supervisory situation I described at the beginning of this paper, instead of telling me what I should have done, the supervisor could have asked, “What did you think of the lesson? How did it go? Did you meet your objective?,” in a positive, interested, and non- judgmental way. Then the supervisor could have more easily understood my ideas, problems I saw in the lesson and the kinds of things I was planning to do. It would have been possible for the supervisor to also have input, to make suggestions, and to share her experience. A decision about what to do next could have been made together. It is worth mentioning that although the ideas of equality and sharing ideas in a problem-solving process can be appealing, the ideal and the real are sometimes far
apart. Not all teachers are willing to share equally in a symmetrical collaborative decision- making process. This has been pointed out clearly by a colleague from a Middle Eastern country who remarked that if, as a supervisor, he attempted to get teachers to share ideas with him; the teachers would think that he was not a very good supervisor.
Non-directive model: While collaborative supervision places the teacher and supervisor in a sharing relationship, non-directive supervision does not. Nor does a non-directive supervisor prescribe or suggest non-prescriptive alternatives. What a non-directive supervisor does was recently expressed by a teacher when she said, “My supervisor usually attempts to have me come up with my own solutions to teaching problems, but she isn’t cold. She’s a giving person, and I can tell that she cares. Anyway, my supervisor listens patiently to what I say, and she consistently gives me her understanding of what I have just said.” The same teacher also expressed the consequences of this type of supervision for her when she added, “I think that when my supervisor repeats back to me my own ideas, things become clearer. I think this makes me more aware of the way I teach—at least I am aware of my feelings about what I do with students. ” When the teacher talked about how the supervisor listened and provided an
understanding of what she had said, she was referring to something that Curran (1978), who bases his ideas on the work of Carl Rogers, calls an “understanding response.” An understanding response is a “re-cognized” version of what the speaker has said. In supervision, the supervisor does not repeat word-for-word what the teacher has said but rather restates how he or she has understood the teacher’s comments.
Creative model: The creative model allows freedom to become creative not only in the use of the models presented, but also in other behaviors we may care to generate and test in our supervisory efforts. There are at least three ways the creative model can be used. It can allow for 1) a combination of models or a combination of supervisory behaviors from different models, 2) a shifting of supervisory responsibilities from the supervisor to other sources, and 3) an application of insights from other fields which are not found in any of the models. Working with only one model can be appropriate, or it can be limiting. Sometimes a combination of different models or a combination of supervisory behaviors from different models might be needed. Freeman (1982), for example, selects a particular supervisory approach according to the type of information the teacher is seeking. If new teachers are trying to find
out “what” to teach, he uses a directive approach. If they want to know “how” to teach, he uses an alternative approach. If they want to know “why” they teach, he uses a non-directive approach. Another way where creative supervision can also be used is through the application of insights from other fields which are not found in any of the models
Therefore, model of supervision helped to adequately explore different ways in which supervision can be done in schools by supervisors, teachers being supervised or outside observer. Supervision play vital roles in an educational system that it's hold on a high esteem. With the Supervisor, every organs of the institution focus on his/her duty(s) for better run of the institution and to achieve its goal.
They're different types of school supervision that helps the institution achieve her desires objectives.
TYPES OF SCHOOL SUPERVISION
1. Inspection:
This is the first and foremost function of supervision that classes are to be inspected by the inspecting officers. It may be the headmaster of the concerned school or school inspector. This is the first supervision in the sense that the teacher becomes alert about his duties and responsibilities after being sure that his duties can be inspected all of sudden when he is in the classroom. So this type of supervision activates the teacher to have proper readiness to deliver good teaching in the classroom.
2. Absolute Freedom: This type of supervision gives absolute freedom to the teachers to deliver their teaching in his own light that he feels the best for his students. There is no hard and fast rule for him to follow guidelines of a sound teaching programme and appropriate methods of teaching for different subjects. This type of supervision is not suitable in the modern context as it stresses on the autocratic attitude of the teacher in teaching in one point and no inspecting authority to inspect his teaching. However, it is a type of supervision which was used in United States of America ones upon a time.
3. Compulsion Type: In this type of supervision autocracy goes to the inspecting personnel. It means as the supervision is meant for the teachers in relation to their teaching performance and it is desirable for him to deliver their teaching performance in a lucid manner. For this they have to act in accordance to the rules and regulations of the modern principles of teaching. But it is a matter of great regret that in this type of supervision the teacher has to teach in accordance of the guidelines prescribed by the inspecting officers themself.the
4. Training and Direction: This type of supervision is appreciated in the modern educational system because of its positive and lasting impact on the teaching performance of teachers. To this supervision as students or pupils are the central points in the teaching learning process, the teaching programme should be in accordance to the needs of every child. For this teachers should be given in-service training on the latest developed methods of teaching for different subjects. After that the supervision work should be done. This type of supervision develops a great deal of interest, self-confidence and creativity among teachers to teach their subjects.
5. Democratic Leadership: The importance of democracy is not only recognized in political perspective but also recognized mostly as a way of life. It means there should be the influence of democracy on all aspects and spheres of human life. In this context education is not escaped. This type of supervision is highly appreciated in the modern educational system which points out that overall development of teaching and learning is the responsibility of one and all who are directly or indirectly linked with this process.
So this supervision says that there will be no improvement of teaching and learning only through teachers. Rather the high level officers as the supervisory personnel have to participate in the teaching programme actively and help the teachers by giving suggestions for improvement if any in private. For this the supervisory personnel has to become aware about the problems and issues that arise in the field of teaching and learning and will try and help the teachers to solve it.
For example, supervisees at the beginner stage would be expected to have limited skills and lack confidence as counselors, while middle stage supervisees might have more skill and confidence and have conflicting feelings about perceived independence/dependence on the supervisor. A supervisee at the expert end of the developmental spectrum is likely to utilize good problem-solving skills and be deeply reflective and intuitive about the counseling and supervisory process. Developmental supervision is based on the following two assumptions:
1. In the process of becoming competent, the counselor will progress though a number of stages that are qualitatively different from each other;
2. Each stage requires a qualitatively different environment for optimum growth to occur.
IMPORTANT OF SCHOOL SUPERVISION
Other reasons for supervising schools are:
➢ To improve the incompetent teachers,
➢ To provide a guide for staff development,
➢ To know the effectiveness of classroom management by the teachers,
➢ To improve methods of teaching and learning,
➢ To create a physical, social and psychological climate or environment.
INSTRUCTION
Instruction is very vital in education; it is define as the transfer of learning from one person to another. This is an activity that has to do with imparting knowledge or skill from an expert to a less experience person.
The noun instruction is related to the word structure; both share the Latin root structus, "built." The use of the word as we know it today appeared in the early 15th century from the Old French. Today it refers to the action of teaching and the job of a teacher. It can also be used to denote the directions themselves. Consider the word's connection with structure: effective instruction is presented in an orderly, structured manner.
Instruction is the facilitation of another’s learning. Instructors in primary and secondary institutions are called teachers, and they direct the education of students and might draw on many subjects like reading, writing, mathematics, science and history.
Instructors in post-secondary institutions might be called teachers, instructors, or professor depending on the type of institution and primarily teach only their specific discipline.
Instruction was define towards the direction of the learning process. Variety of models of instruction are developed, each designed to produce classroom learning.
Joyce et al (2003) describe four categories of models of teaching/instruction
1. Behavioral system
2. Information processing
3. Personal development
4. Social development
That summarizes the vast majority of instructional methods. Each models differ in the specific type or measure of learning that is target. Another important point is that the different models and methods of instruction have been developed based on specific interpretations of concepts and principles of teaching and learning.
It is important to understand the concepts principles upon which they are based.
Ralph waldo Emerson said if you learn only methods, you will be tied to your method, but if you learn principles you devise your own methods.
The importance of instruction in teaching?
Teachers' instruction as an essential part of teachers' classroom discourse, has there functions. Firstly, it can organize students' activities and deliver specific activities. Secondly, it enables students to communicate with others in a real environment.
In conclusion instruction been the purposeful guidance of the learning process, is complex and can take many forms. It is vitally important classroom activity, but must be considered in the context of such factors as measures of desired student learning including overlapping objectives taught to objective tested, controlling student behavior i.e. classroom management activities, individual differences among students, and school processes and characteristics.
CONCLUSION
It has been concluded from this study that there are various models of supervision that can be used by educators in the educational system which also contributed in achieving educational goals and objectives and that there is no one model that is superior to the other.
REFERNCES
Bernard, J. M. and Goodyear, R.K. (1998). Fundamentals of clinical supervision. Boston, Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon.
Bernard, J. M. and Goodyear, R.K. (2004). Fundamentals of clinical supervision. Boston, Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon. Third Edition.
Blatchford, Charles (1976). The silent way and teacher training. In on TESOL ’76, Washington D.C
Joyce et al (2003)
Cogan, Morris L. (1973). Clinical supervision. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Publisher.
Curran, A Charles (1977). Counseling-learning: a whole-person model for education. East Dubuque, Illinois: Counseling-Learning Publications.
Fanselow John (1977). conceptualizing and describing the teaching act. TESOL Quarterly 11(1): 17-41.
Fanselow John F (1983). Over and over again. Paper presented at the 34th Annual Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics, Washington D.C March 9-12.
Freeman, Donald (1982). Observing teachers: three approaches to in-service training and Development. TESOL Quarterly 16(1): 21:29.
Jerry G. Gebhard (1984), A Teacher self development and Methodology; Second Edition Published at United States.
Ralph waldo Emerson
Leddick, G. R. & Bernard, J. M. (1980). The history of supervision: A critical review. Counsellor Education and Supervision, 27, 186-196.Nwaogu, J. I. (1980) A Guide to Effective Supervision of Instruction in Nigerian Schools Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd.
Ojelabi, A. (1981) A Guide to School Management. Ibadan: Valuata Educational Publishers
Stoltenberg, C. D., & Delworth, U. (1987) Supervising counsellors and therapists. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Stoltenberg, C., Mc Neil, B., & Delworth, U. (1998). IDM Supervision: An integrated developmental model for supervising counsellors and therapists. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
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